Sod

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Sod is the upper layer of turf that is harvested for transplanting. Turf consists of a variable thickness of a soil medium that supports a community of turfgrasses.^[1] In British and Australian English, sod is more commonly known as turf, and the word "sod" is limited mainly to agricultural senses. Sod is typically made with grasses that spread laterally through the soil and form a dense mat.

Sod is used for establishing lawns or other greenways, in spaces like golf courses or sports stadiums. Typically, after construction or other kinds of landscape disruption, builders, owners and landscape specialist will place sod to establish a grass cover.

Sod is grown on specialized farms, where the grass, is grown for 12-18 months before specialized farm equipment cuts the sod from the top layer of the soil and makes it ready for transport. Sod is often cut in either squares or rolls, that make it easier for transportation and distribution. Different species of grass are grown in different geographies, because of the different climatic conditions. More recently, some producers have developed turf mixes that include wildflowers and other native plants.

Sod is generally used for lawns, golf courses, and sports stadiums around the world. In residential construction, it is sold to landscapers, home builders or home owners who use it to establish a lawn quickly and avoid soil erosion. Sod can be used to repair a small area of lawn,^[2] golf course, or athletic field that has died and is used as a quicker alternative to re-growing a lawn from seed.^[3] Sod is also effective in increasing cooling, improving air and water quality, and assisting in flood prevention by draining water.^[4]

Scandinavia has a long history of employing sod roofing and a traditional house type is the Icelandic turf house.

In the United States, following the passage of the Homestead Act by Congress in 1862, settlers in the Great Plains used sod bricks to build entire sod houses.^[5] This was effective because the prairie sod of the Great Plains was so dense and difficult to cut it earned the nickname "Nebraska marble". Blacksmith John Deere made his fortune when he became the first to make a plow that could reliably cut the prairie sod.^[6]

Different types of grass are used for sod installation.^[7]

^[8]

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Sod is grown on specialist farms. For 2009, the United States Department of Agriculture reported 1,412 farms had 368,188 acres (149,000.4 ha) of sod in production.^[9]

It is usually grown locally (within 100 miles of the target market)^[10] to minimize both the cost of transport and also the risk of damage to the product. The farms that produce this grass may have many varieties of grass grown in one location to best suit the consumer's use and preference of appearance.

It is usually harvested 10 to 18 months after planting, depending on the growing climate. On the farm, it undergoes fertilization, frequent mowing, watering, and subsequent vacuuming to remove the clippings. It is harvested using specialized equipment, precision cut to standardized sizes. Sod is typically harvested in small square or rectangular slabs, or large 4-foot-wide (1.2 m) rolls.

Prior to commercial sod cultivation, landscape contractors would pay farmers to cut and harvest their pasture.^[11][12]

The Mississippi State University has developed a hydroponic method of cultivating sod. For the very few sod farms that export turf internationally, this soilless sod may travel both lighter and better than traditional sod. Additionally, since the sod is not grown in soil, it does not need to be washed clean of soil down to the bare roots (or sprigs), so time to export is shortened.^[13]

In many applications, such as erosion control and athletic fields, immediacy is a key factor. Seed may be blown about by the wind, eaten by birds, or fail because of drought. It takes some weeks to form a visually appealing lawn and further time before it is robust enough for use. Sod largely avoids these problems, and with proper care, newly laid sod is usually fully functional within 30 days of installation and its root system is comparable to that of a seeding lawn two to three years older.^[14] Sod also reduces erosion by stabilizing the soil.^[15]

Many cultivars and some species can only be reproduced vegetatively^[16] rather than sexually (via seed). For these, sod cultivation is the only means of producing additional plants. To grow these varieties for sale, turf farms use a technique called sprigging, where recently harvested sod mats are cut into slender rows and replanted in the field.

Tall fescue (Lolium arundinaceum) is a cool season grass type originating in Europe, commonly used as sod. It is moderately tolerant to both drought and temperature extremes. As such, it is especially popular in many temperate environments, known in the turf and landscaping industries as the "transition zone". In these areas, summers are too hot for most cool season grasses, while winters are too cold for most warm season grasses. Tall Fescue is well adapted to various soils, moderately shade tolerant, and somewhat resistant to most disease, yet vulnerable to the diseases Brown patch and Fusarium patch. It grows most actively (and thus provides the most desirable appearance) in spring and fall, and requires moderate watering during summer. Due to its bunch type growth habit, which is unique among common sod grasses, it does not spread aggressively or invade adjacent areas once established. However, it also does not actively fill in bare spots, and periodic maintenance (such as overseeding) may be required to maintain a uniform surface. This bunch type growing habit contributes to its somewhat lower wear tolerance compared to Kentucky Bluegrass or Bermuda grass, making it less commonly used for purposes such as athletic fields.^[17][18][19]

Fine fescues (F. rubra, F. rubra subsp. commutata, F. trichophylla) are less popular as sod than the tall fescues. As their names suggest, they exhibit much thinner leaf blades, and tolerate lower mowing heights than the tall fescues. They may be somewhat more resistant to common diseases and most generally prefer cool, shadier climates. Otherwise, their characteristics are similar, except for Creeping Red fescues (F. rubra), which spread via rhizomes and can form a dense sod. Fine fescues are generally used in mixtures with other grasses for shade and soil quality tolerance.^[20]

Kentucky Bluegrass (Poa pratensis) (also known as Common or Smooth-stocked Meadow grass) is widely used in sod production and lawns throughout cool climate areas worldwide due to its cold tolerance, appearance, and ability to form a dense turf base. This species spreads via underground rhizomes, allowing it to establish a strong root system that contributes to its natural sod-forming characteristics. Qualities that are especially important for commercial sod harvesting and transplanting.^[21]

Numerous cultivars have been developed to enhance specific traits such as drought resistance, shade tolerance, handling of disease, and overall turf quality. Cultivars such as 'Midnight', 'Barserati', and 'Blue Note' have consistently performed well in several trials, showing strong summer performance, recovery, and resistance to common turfgrass diseases such as leaf spot and dollar spot..^[22]

Bella Bluegrass:

Bella Bluegrass was developed by the University of Nebraska–Lincoln as a drought-resistant grass that would help states conserve water.^[23] Bella is the first commercial dwarf, vegetative bluegrass. It is sold only as sod, not as seed. Bella is a quick grower laterally but has very minimal vertical growth. Because it only grows to about 4 inches in height, it requires less mowing. It grows in sand, clay, muck, and peat soils, and it is currently being adopted across the northern United States.^[24]

Zoysia (Zoysia sp.) (Also known as Manila grass or Lawngrass in areas of the Far East) is a warm season turfgrass native to Asia and naturalized in the Americas. Common species used for turf include Zoysia japonica and Zoysia matrella, including various hybrids of both.^[25] The grass spreads gradually by means of both rhizomes and stolons. A growth habit that typically results in a dense turf base that can suppress the establishment of some weeds. Zoysia's dense growth is also prone to developing a substantial layer of thatch. Which is a mixture of dead and living organic material at the soil surface that can slow water and nutrients from reaching the roots and may require periodic removal.^[26][25] This density also provides tolerance to extreme temperatures, drought, and traffic.^[27]

Because the grass germinates and grows slowly, establishment from seed is often unsuccessful and is typically planted as sod or plugs.^[28] Compared to many turfgrasses typical in cool season regions, established Zoysia generally requires less irrigation and fertilization during the growing season.^[27] Conversely, its slow growth rate means it is also slow to recover from damage or disease.^[25] As a warm season grass, it enters dormancy and turns light brown after the first hard frost and generally breaks said dormancy when soil temperatures consistently rise above 50 °F (10 °C).^[28]

Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) (also known as Couch grass in Oceania) is commonly used in lawns and for sports surfaces across the southern portions of the United States, parts of the Lower Midwest, and in other warmer areas around the world. It typically tolerates a wide range of climates where warm season plants are regularly cultivated. Established bermuda grass is a network of shoots, rhizomes, stolons, and crown tissue together that usually form a dense plant canopy. This dense plant canopy can be used to propagate clonal varieties by sod, sprigs, or plugs.^[29] The aggressive nature of bermuda grass makes it not only an hardy turfgrass but also a challenging and invasive weed in land used for other purposes. Its two noted weaknesses are its relatively low tolerance of shade and extended, prolonged periods of unprotected exposure to temperatures under 15 °F (−9 °C). Given the economic importance of Bermuda grass (as a turf product, agricultural forage, and, at times, as an invasive weed), it has been the subject of numerous studies.

Celebration Bermuda grass

Celebration bermuda grass is a dark–green aggressive, traffic–tolerant cultivar with high recuperative potential and drought tolerance.^[30] The cultivar is a breed of Cynodon dactylon from Australia developed by turfgrass breeder Rod Riley.^[31] Along with many golf courses across the southern United States, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers elected to install Celebration Bermudagrass in their stadium.^[32]

TifTuf Bermuda grass

TifTuf is a hybrid bermuda grass developed at the University of Georgia - Tifton Campus. This turf research and development program is led by Professor Dr. Brian Schwartz. The turfgrass program at Tifton has pioneered new species of Bermuda grass for many decades.^[33][34]

St. Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum) (also known as Charleston grass in South Carolina and Buffalo turf or grass in Australia) is a warm season, perennial grass that is widely used. The species is of disputed origin and is found throughout many subtropical areas of the United States. This grass is also commonly found and planted in built-up coastal areas across Australasia, Latin America, and low-lying portions of Sub-Saharan Africa.

As a tropical warm season grass, it has limited tolerance to cold weather, lacking the pronounced winter dormancy and/or rhizomatous growth traits typically found in most common turfgrasses. It typically enters semi-dormancy or suffers severe damage at sustained temperatures around 32 °F (0 °C), and does not resume active growth until soil and air temperatures regularly exceed approximately 60 °F (16 °C).^[35][36]

The vast majority of this grass is established using plugs or sod, since seeds are rarely available outside of research settings due to production challenges.

Captiva St. Augustine:

Developed by the University of Florida in 2007,^[37] Captiva is a chinch bug resistant St. Augustine cultivar. It has a dark-green color with a dense canopy and a massive root system. Because it has a slow leaf-blade growth and lateral spread, the requirement for mowing is reduced.

Centipedegrass (Eremochloa ophiuroides) was introduced into the United States from southeastern Asia in 1916. It does well in the climate and soils of northern Florida and low lying areas of the Deep South. It is the most common home lawn grass in the Florida Panhandle.^[38]

Covington:

Covington is a proprietary cultivar of centipede grass that grows in the southeast United States. It is a low maintenance grass, which retains its color in the fall and greens quickly in the spring. This variety is currently being evaluated by the University of Florida.^[38]

Santee:

Santee grass is another new proprietary cultivar, which is also being evaluated by the University of Florida for adaptation to Florida use.^[38]

Wildflower turf (also called Bee or Pollinator grass) is a type of lawn alternative made up of a mixture of wildflower seeds. It is also mixed with common turf or native grasses in many commercial blends. The seeds are sown together and grow to form a lawn of flowers, rather than the monoculture of grass found in a conventional lawn. These type of plantings are generally considered a specialty turf and are rarely used in large scale sod production. This grass mix can be a low-maintenance and sustainable alternative to traditional lawns, as well as providing a habitat for beneficial insects and other wildlife. It often requires less watering and fertilization than traditional lawns.^[39] Wildflower turf can be used in the restoration of natural habitats, such as meadows, prairies, and wetlands. It is used on green roofs to provide a low-maintenance alternative to traditional green roof systems. Seed blends of this type can also help to capture carbon from the atmosphere, helping to mitigate the effects of climate change and to purify the air by absorbing pollutants and releasing oxygen.^[40]

Low growing vegetation is referred to as "turf communities" in areas where such growth is not common, as in moss-turf communities of sub Antarctica,^[41] some epifauna in the sea,^[42] coral reefs^[43] and, in New Zealand, as species-rich communities of plants under 5 cm (1.97 in) tall, on coastal headlands, dune hollows, rivers and lakes,^[44] where most of the natural cover was forest.^[45] A form of turf community is a herbfield.

Turfgrasses suffer from a wide number of fungal diseases; In 2023, Lane et al., provided a sampling methodology for testing.^[46]

White grubs chew on grass roots, reducing the lawn's ability to absorb water and nutrients needed to stay healthy.^[47] The damage is often worsened by skunks, raccoons, crows, and other local wildlife that dig up the turf in search of them.^[48] Common beetle species responsible include the European chafer, green June beetle, Asiatic garden beetle, black turfgrass ataenius, and Japanese beetle.^[49]

• Lawn
• Cob (building)
• Divot
• Green track
• Groundbreaking
• Peat

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How to lay turf